Fish are a renewable resource because they can renew their numbers though breeding.
Fish can be depleted if they are over-exploited
Why over fishing takes place!
Big ships: Some of today’s trawlers are as tallas seven storey buildings and as long as Croke Park. These ‘super-trawlers’ often travel together in fleets, which usually include a factory ship that processes the fish at sea. This system allows trawlers to fish for months on end. They kill vast quantities of fish, which can be stored for long periods of time in massive refrigerated holds.
Modern Equipment: Modern boats are so well equipped that it is very difficult for fish to escape them:
Echo sounders and sonar equipment are used to located fish while radar recooks the location for nearby rocks or ships
Powerful motorised cranes and winches can haul huge catches on board
Huge nets can catch many tonnes of fish at a time. Gill Nets of up to 21 kilometres long hand like massive curtains in the water. Trawl Nets are used to scoop up fish from the sea bed.
Easy Targets: Some fish are very easy to catch. Big shoals of cod, for example gather together to spawn in the Irish sea each spring. They are easy to catch at such times because they move slowly and close together.
Fact: if over fishing continues at its present rate, all world fish stocks will collapse within 50 years.
What is being done to save our fish stocks?
Fishing Fleets: have been reduced in size to lessen the pressure on fish stocks. Ireland’s fishing fleet is to be reduced by one third.
Quotas: They European Union has set quotas or limits on the quantities of fish that each of its member states can catch each year. These quotas are reduced when fish stocks become dangerously low.
Irish Navy Fishery Protection Vessels: patrol our coast to prevent poaching by foreign trawlers.
Fishery Exclusion Zone: have been set up to reduce the amount of fishing that takes place in rich coastal fishing grounds. For example, only Irish boats can normally fish within 10 km of the Irish coast.
Black and Tans: Former British soldiers who fought against the IRA/They fought the IRA and got their name from their uniforms (Something more than ‘They fought the IRA’ needed for 2M)
Bloody Sunday: The day when the Squad killed a number of British agents in Dublin / When the Black and Tans opened fire on the crowd in Croke Park
“The Squad”: A group of men who carried out killings on the orders of Michael Collins.
Statute of Westminster: Ireland was free to leave the Commonwealth / Ireland could change or repeal any law made for it at Westminster / It was used by deValera to justify his dismantling of the Treaty
Economic War: A trade war between Ireland and Britain / A dispute between Ireland and Britain caused by deValera not paying the land annuities / When Britain and Ireland put special tariffs on one another’s imports Ogham: A form of writing/ An alphabet/ Parallel strokes on either side or across a line/ Text carved in stone
Fulachta Fiadh: A cooking site/ Method of cooking.
Crannóg: Man-made Island/ Lake dwelling.
Night of the Long Knives: The killing of leading members of the SA by Hitler/ Destruction of the SA/ The killing of hundreds of Hitler’s opponents.
The Enabling Act: Law that allowed Hitler to rule without a parliament/ It allowed Hitler to rule by decree/ It allowed Hitler to rule as a dictator.
The SS: Hitler’s personal bodyguard/ They ran the concentration camps/ Elite members of the German army/ Security Division/ The Gestapo/ Secret Police.
Nűremberg Laws: Anti-Jewish racial laws/ Marriages between Germans and Jews were forbidden/ Jews were deprived of their German citizenship/ Jews were forced to wear the Star of David (as a symbol of their identity).
Page: The first stage in his training (as a knight)/ A young boy who was sent to another castle to learn basic fighting skills and good manners.
Dubbing: The ceremony at which the squire became a knight.
Chivalry: (The knight’s) code of conduct/ The qualities [Courage, courtesy, etc.] required of an ideal knight.
Jousting: Combat between two knights on horseback/ (Two) knights with lances charging at each other.
Acerbo Law: A law that allowed the party with the largest vote take two-thirds of the seats in parliament.
Blackshirts: Mussolini’s uniformed followers/ The Squadristi.
Lateran Treaty: An agreement between Mussolini and the Pope/ It created an independent Vatican State.
Rome-Berlin Axis: An alliance with Hitler.
Containment: US policy to stop the spread of Communism.
Marshall Plan: Money provided by the US for the re-building of Europe after the war/ A recovery programme for Europe after the war.
Satellite States: Communist states in Eastern Europe that were linked to the Soviet Union.
Iron Curtain: A term used to describe the spread of Communism in Eastern Europe at the end of the war/ The dividing line between Communist-controlled Eastern Europe and the countries of Western Europe.
Benelux Union: An (economic) agreement between Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg.
ESCS: An agreement by (6) countries to allow for the free movement of coal and steel between them..
CAP: EU policy guaranteeing farmers a fixed price for their produce.
Treaty of Rome, 1957: The treaty that established the EEC/ An agreement by (6) countries for the free movement of people, goods and services between them.
Empire: The foreign lands acquired by various European powers/ A number of states or peoples under the control of a common ruler.
Imperialism: The building up of empires/ European states taking over large parts of the world.
Nationalism: The belief that each race of people should be self-governing.
Decolonisation: Withdrawal of (European) countries from former colonies.
Propaganda: Spreading information to promote or damage a government, or group or belief/ The information used to promote or damage a government, group or belief
Archive: Organised collection of documents or photographs or films etc./ A place where such collections are stored
Bias: One-sidedness [in dealing with historical issues]
Microliths: Tiny pieces of flint [used for arrowheads or tools]
Saddle stone: A quern/ which was used for grinding corn
Capstone: Large stone which tops off a dolmen
Maginot Line: French defence line on the Franco-German border/Fortifications built by France to prevent an attack by Germany
Vichy France: Pro-German French government (based at Vichy)/ The part of France controlled by the pro-German French government 13
Afrika Korps: German troops serving in North Africa/ Rommel’s troops
Lebensraum: Land in Eastern Europe that Germany would take over
Chapter house: (Monks’) meeting house/ Room to discuss monastic business/ Room in which abbot was elected
Cloisters: Where monks walked/ where novices were taught.
Refectory: Dining-room/ where monks ate their meals together
Torc: A type of necklace/ Jewellery
Aos Dána: People who had special skills
Demesne: The portion of the land that the lord kept for his own use
Serf: A farm worker at the bottom of the social scale/ A semi-slave on the manor/ The person who worked the lord’s fields, etc.
Tithe: (One-tenth of) worker’s produce that was given to the priest
Pottage: (Thick) soup or stew
Heresy: Belief or practice contrary to (Catholic) church teaching
Nepotism: The giving of (church) positions to one’s relatives.
Simony: Buying/selling of church privileges (e.g. pardons), church offices or religious objects.
Pluralism: Holding of more than one (church) office at a time
Primary source: First-hand evidence / Evidence from the period being studied
Charter: A royal document granting certain rights
Curfew: Time to put out the fire [Medieval meaning of the term]
Pillory: Framework to restrain someone for public punishment
Church records: They contain details of births and marriages
School roll books: They are a record of the numbers, sex and ages of those attending a particular school.
Census: Provide information on population changes over time / Contain details on such social issues as housing, literacy etc.
Diaries: Can contain information on such things as dress, pastimes, food, communications, transport and education / Can show how different events impacted on people’s everyday lives.
Fief: Grant of land (made by the king) / The land held by a vassal.
Manor: A village and its farmland / A very large farm / The amount of land granted by the king for one knight-service.
Vassal: Person who received a fief from his lord or king / Person who provided soldiers to fight for the lord or king.
Sfumato: Allowing tones or colours to shade gradually into each other / Making subjects blend in with the background / Blurring of the outlines of figures
Perspective: Three-dimensional paintings / Giving an impression of depth.
Common market: The abolition of tariffs within the EEC / The original six-member EEC / A former name for the EU.
Peaceful co-existence: Countries with different ideologies getting along together / A thaw in the cold war.
Gerrymander: The rigging of constituency boundaries by Unionists
Blueshirts: Protected Cumann na nGaedheal from IRA attacks / Army Comrades’ Association / An organisation for ex-Free State army members.
Rationing: War-time restrictions on the amount of food, fuel, etc.. an individual or family could get.
B specials: A part-time police force in Northern Ireland / An anti-Nationalist police force
Keep : the main tower or stronghold or building of a castle / the building in the castle where the lord and lady lived.
Moat: a water-filled ditch around a castle.
Portcullis: a strong grating protecting the entrance of the castle that was raised to allow people to enter or leave.
Turret : a small tower on the outer walls of the castle or on the top of the keep
Astrolabe : calculating latitude / finding one’s position
Log and Line : calculating speed / distance travelled by the ship
Caravels : the ships used in the voyages.
Lazy-beds : ridges where potatoes were grown / method of growing potatoes
Middleman: a tenant who rented some of his land to smaller farmers.
Eviction : being thrown out of one’s land and/or home.
Conacre : land rented out for a season to grow potatoes / rented potato ground / land rented for a season
Cottier : a labourer who worked for a farmer in return for the use of a small plot of land / a farm labourer who had just a tiny piece of land
The Anglo-Irish Treaty: Agreement between Britain and Ireland that ended the war of Independence / Agreement that gave us independence / Treaty signed by Collins and Griffith / Any Article of the Treaty
Flying Columns: IRA (Volunteer) units using hit-and-run tactics / Groups of full-time IRA fighters.
Auxiliaries: Former British army officers recruited to fight the rebels / A
The Government of Ireland Act: It set up two parliaments in Ireland / It created a separate Northern Ireland state division of the Police
The Squad: A team of men under Michael Collins who killed British agents / Assassins who worked for Collins
Improved agricultural methods provided more and better food supplies
Several new machines were invented in Britain at this time, which speeded up the manufacture of industrial goods.
Britain ruled over many countries called colonies. The colonies provided Britain with cheap cotton and other raw materials
Transport improved greatly in Britain due to the construction of better roads, canals and railways.
Changes in Textile-Making
Spinning of Wool
Weaving of Thread
Textile making moved into large buildings called factories
Textile making came to be controlled by rich factory-owners
Former craftsmen had to seek work in growing cities, where the factories were situated. There, they were cruelly exploited by the factory-owners.
Inventions in Textile-Making
Spinning Inventions
Inventor
Invention
Description
James Hargreaves
Spinning Jenny
Could spin eight threads at a time.
Richard Arkwright
Water Frame
Could spin hundreds of threads.
Weaving Inventions
Inventor
Invention
Description
John Kay
Flying Shuttle
Doubled the speed of weaving.
Edmund Cartwright
Power Loom
Used steam power to weave cloth quickly.
Coal Mining
Coal Mining played a vital role in the Industrial Revolution. Two inventions allowed coal to play such an important Role.
Many coal mines could not be used because they were flooded with water. But in 1705 Thomas Newcomen invented the Steam Engine, which could pump water out from the mines.
Burning coal did not generate enough heat to smelt iron ore to make iron and steel. But in 1705 Abraham Darby discovered that coal could be converted into coke, which could be used in the smelting process.
The Steam Engine
The Steam Engine was the greatest invention of the Industrial Revolution.
Thomas Newcomen invented the steam engine in 1705
In 1763, James Watt invented the ‘Rotary steam engine’ (further developed Newcomens invention). Watt’s machine could be used to turn other machines in factories, so it mechanised and speeded up manufacturing.
Iron and Steel
Three inventions were responsible for huge growth in iron and steel-making during the Industrial Revolution!
In 1709 Abraham Darby discovered how to convert coal in coke, which became the chief source of power for smelting iron ore.
In 1794 Henry Cort discovered ‘Puddling and Rolling’, which was a better way of making wrought iron. Liquid pig iron was stirred and then run through rollers to make sheets of wrought iron.
In 1856 Henry Bessemer invented a ‘converter’ This involved blowing hot air through melted pig iron to burn off its impurities. Resulted in better and cheaper steel.
Effects of the Industrial Revolution
The Growth of Cities
Poor people crowded into urban areas in search of work.
Trade:
Britain became rich through increased overseas trade. British colonies provided raw materials for Britain’s growing factories as well as markets for Britain’s manufactured goods.
Clothing:
Cotton began to replace wool as the most popular fabric. Big machines made cloth more cheaply than before, so the cost of clothing decreased. However, workers were so poorly paid that they themselves could afford few clothes.
Working Conditions:
People working in factories and mines were exploited cruelly.
Houses: circular, posts, wattle and daub, thatch, hearth inside and hole in roof. Ditch and fence around houses.
Food: same as Neolithic but fulachta fiadh used as well as spits and copper cauldrons.
Tools and weapons: bronze, sickles, spades axes, spears, swords.
Arts and crafts: copper and gold jewellery. Lunulae and torcs (twisted gold), fasteners, collars, bracelets and necklaces.
Burial customs and religion: wedge tombs, cist graves, stone circles (may be linked to sun’s movements), galláns (standing stones). Buried in crouched position with grave goods (afterlife). Some cremated, ashes in pots.
4) The Iron Age and the Celts (by 300 BC iron had taken over)
Evidence: Romans, Halstatt, La Tene, Christian writings and archaeological evidence.
Houses: ring-forts (raths and cashels), Crannógs (well-off?).
Hill-forts (Tara) and promontory forts (Dun Aengus). Ceremonial. Chevaux de frise
Houses built in same way as Bronze Age.
Souterrains (escape and cool food)
Family: described below in order of importance.
Rí or Taoiseach ruled a Tuath and were appointed by the Derbfine. Fosterage in use.
The Nobles were made up of the warriors and the Aosdána. Aosdána were Brehons, Filí, Druids and craftsmen.
Farmers
Commoners or Slaves (captured from other tribes)
Food: Mainly cattle but also sheep and pigs. Dairy products. Wheat (bread), oats (porridge) and barley (ale). Rotary quern. Spit and fulachta fiadh still used and also stone ovens.
Tools and weapons: iron smelting. Bronze and gold still use for ornaments.
Arts and crafts: Lá Tene (Switzerland), Ogham stones.
Burial customs and Religion: Lug, Bridget. Cremated and ashes put in pits or put in cist graves with a mound of stones (cairn) on top. Grave-goods included.
5) Early Christian Ireland. (Early 400s AD)
First arrived in the south-east. Some may have been slaves. Palladius sent as bishop. Patrick best known. The story of Patrick. Most Celts were Christian by 600. Celtic life continued as before but druids lost power.
Monasteries:
Remote areas (Skellig Michael, Glendalough). Round towers (2 used). Beehive cells (clocháns).Scriptorium(Book of Kells, Cathach) manuscripts on parchment or vellum.
Monks worked in fields. Attacks by other clans, other monasteries and Vikings.
Arts and crafts:
Metalwork. Filigree (Ardagh and Derrynaflan chalices, Tarabrooch)
High crosses (Muireadeach’s Cross in Monasterboice)
Irish monks abroad:
‘Island of saints and scholars’ Columcille in Iona, Columbanus in Bobbio Italy.
King was Lord of Ireland and had little control. The country was divided into 3 areas:
The Pale (English speaking, common law, cattle raids)
The Anglo-Irish lordships (Norman descendants, common law, some Irish customs)
The Gaelic Irish lordships (Brehon law, clan owned tuath, little had changed since Celts)
Henry VIII and Ireland
Henry wanted greater control in Ireland because:
To reduce the power of the Fitzgerald’s of Kildare.
To prevent the French or Spanish from using Catholic Ireland as a base.
To introduce the changes in religion to Ireland.
Garret Óg put in jail. Silken Thomas rebelled. Skeffington and gunpowder led to ‘the pardon of Maynooth’. Very expensive, so Henry tried a new approach.
Surrender and Regrant: Gaelic and Anglo-Irish lords gave their land to the king and got it back, with a title, if they promised to speak English, obey English law and practice English customs. This led to disputes over succession and now land could be confiscated from a chieftain.
Plantations were now possible. Loyal planters would get the land of rebellious Irish.
The Plantation of Laois and Offaly
O Moores and O Connors raided Pale. Lord Deputy defeated them and confiscated lands.
Queen’s County (Laois) with a county town called Maryborough (Portlaoise).
King’s County (Offaly) with a county town called Philipstown (Daingean)
Plantation failed because not enough planters came and the Irish kept attacking the settlers.
The Plantation of Munster
Causes of the Desmond Rebellions:
Queen Elizabeth wanted to increase control. Presidents of Munster appointed (English law and Protestant religion).
Adventurers encouraged to claim land.
James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald got help from the Pope after his first rebellion failed. All 600 Spanish and Italian soldiers killed. Munster laid waste. Land confiscated.
The Plantation:
Undertakers got 4,6,8 and 12 thousand acre lots. Expected to be able to defend against the Spanish in 7 years.
Results:
Not nearly enough settlers came. The Irish attacked. Ownership changed. New towns (Bandon and Lismore). Timber for barrels and ships. New farming methods. Trade prospered
The Plantation of Ulster (special study)
Background and Causes:
Elizabeth wanted English law and Protestant religion in Ulster. O Neill and O Donnell rebelled. Some victories (Battle of Yellow Ford) and final defeat in Kinsale 1601.
Treaty of Mellifont.
Flight of the Earls 1607.
James 1 confiscated land.
The Plantation:
James wanted loyal settlers, an income and a way to pay soldiers.
6 counties (Armagh, Derry, Donegal, Cavan, Fermanagh and Tyrone)
Estates of 1000, 1500 and 2000 given to 3 groups:
Undertakers (no Irish tenants, £5.33 per 1000 acres)
Servitors (some Irish, £8)
Loyal Irish (£10.66)
Bawns and Castles had to be built. 12 Guilds in London formed the Irish Society to plant Derry Antrim and Down planted by Chichester, Hamilton and Montgomery.
Results:
Many Scottish Presbyterians did come.
Wood kern attacked settlers
Legacy of hatred
New towns
Trade prospered
The Cromwellian Settlement
Background and Causes:
1641 rebellion. Ulster settlers massacred.
Civil War in England.
Ireland was regarded, as Royalist and Cromwell needed to pay his Roundheads and adventurers who had financed the Civil War. Religion was important to Cromwell.
The Plantation:
1652 Act of Settlement. ‘To hell or to Connaught’
Many sent to the West Indies. Soldiers allowed enlist in armies not at war with England.
Sir William Petty and the Down Survey. 11 million acres.
Most landlords protestant. Many absentee. Gale day (landlord’s agent). Large farmers (30 acres +). Sublet to small farmers and cottiers. Spailpeens were wandering labourers.
Country divided into Poor Law Unions and each had a workhouse. Only the really badly off would go there (families split up, like prison).
Causes
Rise in population
Subdivision
Dependence on the potato
The Blight
What was done
1845 Peel’s government bought maize (Indian corn) and set up Public Works Schemes.
1846 Russel’s liberal government did not want to interfere and abandoned the above.
Soup kitchens were set up by the Quakers and the government but the government abandoned the idea in 1847.
The workhouses catered for 200000 and eventually were allowed provide soup kitchens.
